The absence of a body of written aesthetic theory in Islam before the nineteenth century may be attributed in part to the traditional Islamic disapproval […]
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ABU DHARR AL-GHIFARI
ABU DHARR AL-GHIFARI (d. 652), companion of the prophet Muhammad and focus of modern ideological debate. As in the case of many other companions of […]
ABDURRAHMAN WAHID
ABDURRAHMAN WAHID (7 September 1940 – 30 December 2009) the articale need changes as ABDURRAHMAN WAHID died. ———————————————————————- , Indonesian Islamic thinker, writer, and […]
ABDUL HAMID II
ABDULHAMID II (1842-1918), thirty-fourth Ottoman sultan (r. 1876-1909). A profound political and economic crisis brought Abdiilhamid II to the throne. Since 1839 the open-door policy […]
ABDUH, MUHAMMAD
ABDUH, MUHAMMAD (1849-1905), Egyptian scholar and reformer regarded as the architect of Islamic modernism. The birth year of Muhammad `Abduh coincided with the death of […]
ABD EL-KRIM
ABD EL-KRIM (1882-1963), more fully, Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi, Moroccan leader of the Rif Rebellion (1921-1926) and Islamic reformer. Abd el-Krim was the eldest […]