NAJAF

Batoota — Tue, 04 Apr 2017 13:30:05 +0000

NAJAF. A religious center of the Shi`is since the eighth century, Najaf is located in Iraq, south of Baghdad and 6 miles west of Kufa. It is the site of the mash-had of the first Shi’i imam, `Ali ibn Abli Talib, whose gravesite was revealed to the public in the early ‘Abbasid period by Ja’far al-Sadiq (d. 765) during one of his visits to Kufa. Under al-Sadiq and his disciples, Najaf also became heir to the Shi’i learning that had flourished in Kufa, where in the grand mosque, al-Sadiq’s hadiths (reports) were disseminated among some nine hundred teachers of traditions.

Holy shrine of Imam Ali (AS) in Najaf

Following the founding of Baghdad (754-775), a number of Shi’i scholars from Kufa migrated to this new capital. Some others chose the mashhad at Najaf as the base from which to teach and spread ShN traditions. Although Kufa retained its importance as the locus of Shi’i activities until fifteenth century, Najaf gradually replaced it. During this transition, Najafs mashhad and the madrasah (seminary) attached to it found much-needed patronage from Shi`i rulers. The ruler of Tabaristan, Muhammad ibn Zayd al-`Alawi (d. goo), ordered the construction of the dome and the Sufi zdwiyah (cells). The Buyid sultans added the arched halls and hospices that provided residence for the students who came to study in Najaf. During his visit to Najaf in 1336, Ibn Battutah noted the existence of a number of madrasahs, hospices, and Sufi convents attached to the shrine.
In the eleventh century, Shaykh al-Td’ifah al-Tusi (d. 1067), a great Shi`i scholar and leader of the community, migrated from Baghdad to Najaf and established his own school based on a text-oriented Shi’i curriculum. The present-day Shi`i mujtahids regard themselves as the intellectual descendants of al-Tusi’s madrasah, but in the twentieth century, Najaf lost its leadership of Shi`i learning. With the establishment of Shiism as the state religion of Iran under the Safavids in the early 1500s, there was a flow of Shi’i scholars from Iraq and Lebanon to Isfahan and other places in Iran. [See Safavid Dynasty.] Nineteenth-century Iraq and Iran witnessed the modernization of educational and political institutions along with the development of an intense nationalism that created a different challenge for the mujtahids in Iran. Under the leadership of Ayatollah `Abd al-Karim Ha’iri Yazdi (d. 1937), the religious hierarchy in Iran found it appropriate to establish a madrasah in Qom that would respond to the growing needs of the times and would equal and even surpass Najaf as the hub of Shi’i religious sciences. Moreover, the highly centralized religious leadership of the marja` al-taghd had passed on to prominent mujtahids of Qom, overshadowing the apolitical leadership of Najaf in the growing turmoil of the 1950s and 1960s. It was not until the rise of Ayatollahs Khomeini (d. 1989) and Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr (executed 1980) that Najaf reversed its tradition of shunning politics and actively sought to combat the secular ideology of the Ba’thists in Iraq.
There are several historical sites in the vicinity of Najaf that form an important part of Shi’i piety. One of the most sacred places is the grand mosque of Kufa where `All was assassinated. In Shi’i estimation, the Kufa mosque is equal in status to the mosques of Mecca and Medina. The other important spot of pilgrimage is the Sahlah mosque, where the Shi’is believe that the twelfth imam appears every Tuesday evening to perform the sunset prayer. Accordingly, a large crowd of pious Sh-i’is assembles in Sahlah that evening in the hope of meeting the Hidden Imam.
[See also Mashhad; Shrine; Ziyarah; and the biography of ‘Ali.]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Algar, Hamid. Religion and State in Iran, 1785-1906: The Role of the Ulama in the Qajar Period. Berkeley, 1969. Covers Najaf and its religious establishment, and the politics of the `ulama’, and Muslim powers.
Ayoub, Mahmoud M. Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of `Ashura’ in Twelver Shi ism. The Hague, 1978. Discusses mashhad rituals in Shi’i piety.
Mottahedeh, Roy P. The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran. New York, 1985. Covers the curriculum and methodology of the religious sciences at the madrasah in Shi’i centers of learning.
ABDULAZIZ SACHEDINA

AYATOLLAH.

Batoota — Fri, 12 Oct 2012 09:21:08 +0000

AYATOLLAH. Derived from the terms dyat (sign, testimony, miracle, verses of the Qur’an) and Allah (God), ayatollah (“sign of God”), is an honorific title with hierarchical value in Twelver Imamite Shiism, bestowed by popular usage on outstanding mujtahids, with reference to Qur’an 41.53. The sense of this title can be traced to the need for legitimacy sought by the Shi`i `ulama’ during the absence of the twelfth imam, the Master of the Age, in the end of the greater occultation, from 94o to the end of time. Its attribution reflects the socioreligious environment prevailing in the Qajar period (1796-1925). The title was not in use among the Shi’is of Lebanon, Pakistan, or India and remained restricted in Iraq to mujtahids of Iranian origin. An imitation of the title zill Allah (“shadow of God”) traditionally applied to Persian Islamic rulers, which was confirmed by the use of dyat Allah zadah (“son of ayatollah”), a counterpart of shah zadah (“son of the shah”), has also been proposed as the origin of the title (Matini, 1983).
The attribution of this title seems to have coincided with crucial moments of influence of Twelver Shiism in Iran. Its first reputed bearer, Ibn al-Mutahhar al-Hilli (d. 1325), converted the Mongol Il-khan Oljeitu Muhammad Khudabandah (r. 1304-1317) to Twelver Shiism. He was styled ayat Allah fi al-`alamayn (ayatollah in the two worlds), in addition to his best-known title of al-`Allama’ (i.e:, “the most learned”; this became an essential requisite for a marja` al-taqlid, a “source of emulation” in the Qajar period). But this case remained an exception. Although the modern bio-hagiographical Shi’i literature sometimes applies retrospectively titles such as marja` al-taglid or ayatollah to pre Qajar `ulama’, this is historically groundless. Former Safavid and even Qajar Shi i titles were styled differently. Most titles were related to the functions of the mujtahid, such as: mujtahid al-zaman (mujtahid of the age); khatam al-mujtahidin (“seal of mujtahidin”); shaykh al-mujtahidin (“dean of mujtahidin”), and so forth. Except for the functional title of marja` al-taglid, other titles were related to Islam, such as thiqat al-Islam (“trustee of Islam”) and hujjat al-Islam (“proof of Islam”).
The general use of the title appears in the late Qajar period. It is mentioned in a pamphlet against the `ulama’ (see Hajj Sayyah, Khaterat, Tehran, AH 1346/ 1930 CE, p. 338; text written between the 1870s and 1910s). Among its earlier modern bearers one may find religious/political leaders of the constitutional revolution of 1905 to 1911, Sayyids `Abd Allah Bihbahani (d. 1910) and Muhammad Tabataba’i (d. 1918). But anti-constitutionalist mujtahids were also called ayatollah, and a spiritual leader, `Abd al-Karim Ha’iri-Yazdi (d. 1937) founder of the new theological center of Qom, is said to be the first mujtahid to bear this title. Titles such as dyat Allah ft al-anam (“ayatollah among mankind”), or ft al-`alamayn (“in the two worlds”), or ft al-ward (“among mortals”) also appeared from the time of the constitutional revolution.
Besides being a fully qualified mujtahid, an aspiring ayatollah must assert his authority over both his peers and his followers. As shown by recent research on Shi`i leadership (Amanat, 1988), to the prerequisite notion of a`lamiyat (“superiority in learning”) must be added the often overlooked concept of riyasat (“leadership”) that is solidified by popular acclamation and payment of religious taxes. Although contributing to centralizing clerical authority, riyasat also meant clerical leadership over specific communities (e.g., Arab, Turkish, or Persianspeaking groups in Iraqi Shi’i sanctuaries, the `atabat [see `Atabat]).
With the appearance of such outstanding figures as Mohammad Hosayn Borujerdi (d. 1962), who emerged as the sole marja` al-taglid, and the religious political leader Abol-Qasem Kashani (d. 1962), the title ayatollah became increasingly common and ubiquitous. Losing its initial prestige, it even came to be applied, against their own usage, to Sunni religious dignitaries. The leading ayatollah of his time came to be designated by the elative ayatullah al-usma (“grand ayatollah”, i.e., the supreme mujtahid or marja al-taglid), the first bearer of the title being Borujerdi. A kind of restricted college of ayatollahs, in Qom, decided on his nomination. A further debasement of even this higher title occurred with the application of the title imam to Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (d. 1989), quite unusual for Twelver Shi’i (see Matins, 1983, p. 603f.).
At the time of Borujerdi’s death there was a great discussion among prominent mujtahids, ayatollahs, and Shi’i laymen regarding the role of the marja al-taglid and his function. Among the views discussed was the idea, formerly favored by `Abd al-Karim Ha’irs-Yazdi, that the concept of a sole marja` al-taglid be abandoned. Each mujtahid should then specialize in a field and be followed in that field. Another idea was that a council of mujtahids should be sharing leadership. In practice, there was a split in the leadership, outstanding ayatollahs and maraji` al-taglid being established in the main centers of learning (Mashhad and Qom in Iran; Najaf in Iraq). After rivaling Qom from the 1960s until the mid1970s, Mashhad declined in importance. After the events of 1963, Ayatollah Khomeini emerged as one of the top-ranking maraji` al-taglid, although Muhsin al-Hakim (supported by the shah) had a large following in Iraq.
Although Shi`i `ulama’ were traditionally reluctant to structure their leadership, as a result of the Iranian Islamic Revolution, by 1980 a sort of seven-degree hierarchy was established: talabah (“student”); thiqat al-Islam (title formerly given to higher ranking mujtahids); hujjat al-Islam; hujjat al-Islam wa al-muslimin; ayatullah; ayatullah al-`uzma; nayib-i imam (“lieutenant of the Imam”). The latter title reflects the assumption of both temporal and spiritual power by Khomeini. The concept of niyabat (general vicegerency of the Hidden Imam) was until then purely theoretical in Twelver Shiism. Despite its devaluation, a growing number of mujtahids bore the title ayatollah. A decree from Khomeini (September 1984) stated that certain persons calling themselves ayatollah should henceforth be called hujjat al-Islam.
With the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran (1979), a leading role was attributed to prominent ayatollahs. But some of them reluctantly accepted or even objected or opposed the application of Khomeini’s theory of vilayat-i fagih (wilayat al fagih; mandate of the jurist), the most prominent opponent being Shari-at Madari (d. 1986), demoted from the rank of grand ayatollah in 1982. One of the leading opponents, Ayatollah Abol-Qasem Kho’i (Abu al-Qasim Khu’i, d. 1992) had many followers. After Khomeini’s death, Sayyid ‘Ali Khamene’i became the vali-i faqih (leading theologian), while Ayatollah Husayn `Ali Muntaziri, initially nominated by Khomeini as his spiritual heir (and ratified by the Assembly of Experts, or shura yi khibrigan, in 1985), only to be dismissed by Khomeini in 1989, is still waiting a general acknowledgment of his title of dyatulldh al-`uzma at the top of the hierarchy.
[See also Ijtihad; Marja` al-Taqlid; Mujtahid; and Iran; in addition, many of the figures mentioned are the subjects of independent entries.]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Akhavi, Shahrough. Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran. New York, 1980.
Algar, Hamid. “Ayatollah.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 3, fasc. 2, p. 133. New York and London, 1982-. See related bibliography. Amanat, Abbas. “In Between the Madrasa and the Marketplace: The Designation of Clerical Leadership in Modern Shi’ism.” In Authority and Political Culture in Shi’ism, edited by Said Amir Arjomand, pp. 98-132. New York, 1988.
Arjomand, Said Amir. The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam. Chicago and London, 1984.
Arjomand, Said Amir. “Ideological Revolution in Shi’ism.” In Authority and Political Culture in Shi`ism, edited by Said Amir Arjomand, pp. 178-209. New York, 1988.
Arjomand, Said Amir. The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran. New York and Oxford, 1988.
Bakhash, Shaul. The Reign of the Ayatollahs: Iran and the Islamic Revolution. London, 1986.
Calmard, Jean. “Ayatullah.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., Supplement, pp. 103-104. Leiden, i96o-. See related bibliography. Calmard, Jean. “Mardja’i-taklid.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., vol. 6, pp. 548-556. Leiden, i96o-. See related bibliography. Calmard, Jean. “Mudjtahid.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., vol. 7, pp. 295-304. Leiden, i96o-. See related bibliography.
Fisher, M. M. J. Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution. Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1980.
Matini, J. “Spiritual Titles in Iranian Shi’ism” (Persian). Iran Nameh 1.4 (1983): 560-608.
Momen, Moojan. An Introduction to Shi`i Islam. New Haven and London, 1985.
JEAN CALMARD

AYATOLLAH. – Hybrid Learning

NAJAF

AYATOLLAH.